page contents

General Expectation for High School Writing

What Makes a Good Draft?

Often teachers will ask you to bring in draft versions of a writing assignments. This can mean many different things, but usually a “draft” version of an essay a) will not be graded or at least not graded for quality and b) is meant to be revised before the deadline for the next draft or final version.

 

The First Draft

Students often have a misconception that a first draft paper can be incomplete. It is important to remember that you will receive more useful feedback on your first draft if it contains an attempt at composing a complete paper. For this reason, you are expected to fulfill all the requirements of a final writing assignment even if you are only composing a draft. For example, if your final paper should be 3-4 pages long, your first draft should likewise be 3-4 pages long. Likewise, if you need to cite evidence from outside sources in your final draft, your first draft should do so as well.

 

The Second Draft & Beyond

When you are asked to create multiple drafts of an assignment, the most important thing to remember is that each draft should be the product of substantial revision. Revision is the process of closely examining the substance, style, and structure of your writing, looking to improve

all of these elements. This is different than editing or proofreading, which really focuses on eliminating mechanical mistakes in your writing.

 

Revision

The work of revision is a bit like being a sculptor: you, as the writer, need to look at all you have written thus far, and, like a sculptor sees a statue hiding inside a block of stone, you need to chip away at what you’ve written to get to the heart of your ideas. You need to ask yourself questions like, “What is the point of my paper?” Once you have convincingly answered this question, ask yourself, sentence-by-sentence, how each part of your paper contributes to that point. Sentences that don’t contribute should be revised or deleted. Underdeveloped parts of your paper should be expanded.

 

As a rule of thumb, these questions, adapted from Dartmouth’s Institute for Writing and Reading, will help you meaningfully revise your work, rather than just edit it:

 

Consider Your Introduction

  • If you are writing a researched paper, does your introduction place your argument in an ongoing conversation?  

  • If you're not writing a researched paper, does your introduction set context?  

  • Does your introduction define all of your key terms?  

  • Does your introduction draw your reader in?  

  • Does your introduction lead your reader clearly to your thesis?

 

Consider Your Thesis  

  • Does your thesis say what you want it to say?  

  • Does your thesis make a point worth considering?

  • Does it answer the question, "So what?"  

  • Does your thesis provide your reader with some sense of the paper's structure?  

  • Does the paper deliver what your thesis promises to deliver?

 

Consider Your Structure  

  • Make an outline of the paper you've just written. Does this outline reflect your intentions?  

  • Does this outline make sense? Or are there gaps in the logic? Places where you've asked the reader to make leaps you haven't prepared her for?  

  • Is each point in your outline adequately developed?  

  • Is each point equally developed? (That is, does your paper seem balanced, overall?)  

  • Is each point relevant? Interesting?  

  • Underline your thesis sentence and all of your topic sentences. Then cut and paste them together to form a paragraph. Does this paragraph make sense?

 

Consider Your Paragraphs  

  • Does each paragraph have a topic sentence that clearly controls the paragraph?  

  • Are the paragraphs internally coherent?  

  • Are the paragraphs externally coherent? (That is, have you made adequate transitions from paragraph to paragraph? Is each paragraph clearly related to the thesis?)

 

Consider Your Argument and Its Logic  

  • Have you really presented an argument, or is your paper merely a series of observations, a summary?  

  • Do you see any holes in your argument? Or do you find the argument convincing?  

  • Have you dealt fairly with the opposition? Or have you neglected to mention other possible arguments concerning your topic for fear that they might undermine your work?  

  • Have you supplied ample evidence for your arguments?  

  • Do you see any logical fallacies? (for more information on logic and logical fallacies, see Logic and Argument.)

 

Consider your Conclusion  

  • Is your conclusion appropriate, or does it introduce some completely new idea?  

  • Does your conclusion sum up your main point?  

  • Does your conclusion leave your reader with something to think about?  

  • Does the language resonate, or does it fall flat?

  • On the other hand, have you inflated the language ridiculously to try to pad a conclusion that is empty and ineffective?

 

Proofreading Techniques

The old adage is “You never get a second chance to make a first impression”, and even before readers judge your work based on its substance, they will evaluate it based on whether it contains easily avoidable grammatical and mechanical errors. So, the final step before submitting any writing assignment at CHS and beyond is proofreading.

 

Professional writers and editors have all sorts of tricks to ensure they do not miss any errors in the work they proof. Here is a collection of techniques adapted from the University of Central Florida’s Writing Center:

 

  • Take a break before proofreading.

  • Print a proof reading draft with extra space in margins and between sentences.

  • Create a personalized editing checklist based on your previous writing.

  • Read paper more than once, looking for different problems each time.

  • Read aloud to someone else.

  • Have someone read aloud while you follow along.

  • Physically cover up all but the line you're reading.

  • Read backwards, word by word.

  • Read backwards, sentence by sentence.

  • Circle all verbs, then check for tense, agreement, voice, mood, etc.

  • Circle prepositions, then check for clarity. If possible, reword to eliminate prepositions.

  • Circle commas, then check to see if they are correctly used.

  • Point at and name punctuation as you read.

 

*Bolded items are particularly effective

II. Types of Writing (Adapted from the Common Core State Standards for English language arts & literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects, Purdue University Writing Lab,  and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center)

 

Argument

Arguments are used for many purposes- to change the reader’s point of view, to bring about some action on the reader’s part, or to ask the reader to accept the writer’s explanation or evaluation of a concept, issue, or problem. An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that the writer’s position, belief, or conclusion is valid.

 

A Set of Propositions:

An argument is a set of propositions designed to demonstrate that a particular conclusion, called the thesis, is true. An argument is not simply a statement of opinion, but an attempt to give reasons for holding certain opinions.  In historical, technical, and scientific writing, accuracy matters, and students should demonstrate their knowledge through precision and detail.The most commonly referenced model for written argument was developed by Stephen Toulmin. Toulmin’s The Uses of Argument describes six key elements/concepts with which an argument can be analyzed and constructed:

Claim: the statement you are asking others to accept

Grounds: the basis of persuasion; the data, evidence, and reasons

Warrant: the link or “glue” that holds the evidence and claim together, explaining how and why the evidence helps prove the claim

Backing: the additional support for the warrant

Qualifier: indicates strength of the leap from claim to warrant; may limit universality of the claims

Rebuttal: acknowledgment of counterarguments; typically includes own claims, grounds, warrants

 

Writing Arguments in the Subject Areas:

  1. In English, students make claims about the worth or meaning of a literary work and defend their interpretation with evidence from the text. An argument is a reasoned, logical way of demonstrating that the writer’s position, belief, or conclusion is valid.

Purdue University, Establishing Arguments: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/588/1/

 

  1. In History, historical thinking involves the ability to define and frame a question about the past and to address that question by constructing an argument. A plausible and persuasive argument requires a clear, comprehensive and analytical thesis, supported by relevant historical evidence — not simply evidence that supports a preferred or preconceived position. Additionally, argumentation involves the capacity to describe, analyze, and evaluate the arguments of others in light of available evidence.

Historical Argumentation (Video): https://vimeo.com/125078203

Boston University, Department of History Writing Guide: https://www.bu.edu/history/files/2011/01/writing_guide.pdf

 

  1. In Science, students make claims in the form of statements or conclusions that answer questions or address problems. Using data in a scientifically acceptable form, students marshal evidence and draw on their understanding of scientific concepts to argue in support of their claims. Scientific argumentation attempts to validate or refute a claim on the basis of reasons in a manner that reflects the values of the scientific community. A claim, in this context, is not simply an opinion or an idea; rather, it is a conjecture, explanation, or other conclusion that provides a sufficient answer to a research question.

Scientific Argumentation: http://static.nsta.org/files/PB304Xweb.pdf

 

Writing Samples:

  1. Sample #1: Common Core Argument Essay

Interpretation and Student Sample:

In this on-demand assignment, students were asked to take a position on whether or not this school should participate in the national “Shut Down Your Screen Week.” This student gives an introduction about technology in a broad and substantive sense as context on the issue and  makes a claim that in his view the school should not participate. The writer reminds the reader of the significance of his claim  by pointing out one of the reasons to support that claim (“Cyber- bullying is one of the biggest issues with the web today”), then develops the overall claim with several reasons, which he supports with sufficient relevant, credible evidence, demonstrating his understanding of the topic and the texts he has read. The evidence in this piece comes from those texts and from the writer’s experience. The writer organizes his ideasclearlyand supports his claim with logical reasoning. In addition, he acknowledges and treats fairly multiple counterclaims, distinguishes them from his own claim, and refutes them with support for his own position, whichagain includes evidence from the texts. The writer introduces counterclaims specifically to anticipate the concerns, values, and possible  biases of the likely audience (other students, parents, teachers, school board members). Throughout the essay, the writer uses words, phrases, andclauses as well as varied syntax to clarify the relationships among claim, counterclaims, reasons, andevidence and to create cohesion. The writer maintains a formal style and objective tone throughout the piece. The conclusion follows from and supports the argument presented, reminding the reader of the significance of the topic and claim to this particular audience (other students, teachers,parents, school board members).

 

Read the sample argument essay here: Common Core Student Argument Essay

 

  1. Sample #2: Historical Research Argument

Interpretation & Student Sample:

A strong thesis is a great beginning to an argument essay in history, but it means nothing if it is not developed with solid claims and persuasive evidence.  The best argument papers usually break apart their argument into five main sections, or claims, that develop the ideas raised in the thesis. For example, Sam Bouman’s paper, “Fed by Fear: The FBI’s Crusade against Fred Hampton and the Black Panthers,” argues that exaggerated fears about a black revolution led government officials to embark on a secret crusade against Fred Hampton and the Black Panthers.  Bouman develops his argument with claims that:

1)  Martin Luther King’s assassination contributed to criticism against nonviolent strategies to win civil rights and rising black nationalism;

2)  The Black Panther Party’s unorthodox methods and revolutionary rhetoric prevented some people from seeing the positive impacts of the organization on the black community;

3)  Some in government felt threatened by the BPP, stirring concerns about the rise of a “black messiah” and the development of secret government programs to observe and disrupt the activities of black nationalists;

4)  Charismatic leader Fred Hampton became a special target of concern by organizing demonstrations, unifying blacks, revolutionary rhetoric, starting free basic social services;

5)  FBI attempted to undermine Hampton’s efforts, eventually raiding his home and killing the civil rights leader – ultimately leading to concerns about a possible government cover-up, a galvanized black voting bloc, and changes in the tactics of BPP.

With these five claims, Bouman established historical context, the events and actions which developed, short-term impact, and long-term significance – four key elements in any argument paper in history. Just like in a courtroom, the case is only as strong as the evidence which supports it.  In an argument paper for history class, primary and secondary sources provide the evidence for the claims.  Photographs, quotes, graphs, statistics, maps, and many other sources develop the ideas posed by the student.

 

  1. Sample #3: Scientific Research Report

Interpretation and Student Sample:

You did an experiment or study for your science class, and now you have to write it up for your teacher to review. You feel that you understood the background sufficiently, designed and completed the study effectively, obtained useful data, and can use those data to draw conclusions about a scientific process or principle. But how exactly do you write all that? What is your teacher expecting to see? To take some of the guesswork out of answering these questions, try to think beyond the classroom setting. In fact, you and your teacher are both part of a scientific community, and the people who participate in this community tend to share the same values. As long as you understand and respect these values, your writing will likely meet the expectations of your audience—including your teacher. So why are you writing this research report? The practical answer is “Because the teacher assigned it,” but that’s classroom thinking. Generally speaking, people investigating some scientific hypothesis have a responsibility to the rest of the scientific world to report their findings, particularly if these findings add to or contradict previous ideas. The people reading such reports have two primary goals:

  • They want to gather the information presented.

  • They want to know that the findings are legitimate.

Your job as a writer, then, is to fulfill these two goals.

 

Read through the explanation and sample student science research paper here: http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/scientific-reports/

 

Informative/ Explanatory  

Informative/ explanatory writing conveys information accurately. This kind of writing serves one or more closely related purposes: to increase readers’ knowledge of a subject, to help readers better understand a procedure or process, or to provide readers with an enhanced comprehension of a concept. Informational/ explanatory writing addresses matters such as types (What are the different types of poetry?) and components (What are the parts of a motor?); size, function, or behavior (How big is the United States? What is an X-ray used for? How do penguins find food?); how things work (How does the legislative branch of government function?); and why things happen (Why do some authors blend genres?). To produce this kind of writing, students draw from what they already know and from primary and secondary sources. With practice, students become better able to develop a controlling idea and a coherent focus on a topic and more skilled at selecting and incorporating relevant examples, facts, and details into their writing. They are also able to use a variety of techniques to convey information, such as naming, defining, describing, or differentiating different types or parts; comparing or contrasting ideas or concepts; and citing an anecdote or a scenario such as literary analyses, scientific and historical reports, summaries, and precis writing as well as forms of workplace and functional writing such as instructions, manuals, memos, reports, applications, and resumes.

 

Arguments versus Explanations:

Although information is provided in both arguments and explanations, the two types of writing have different aims. Arguments seek to make people believe that something is true or to persuade people to change their beliefs or behavior. Explanation, on the other hand, starts with the assumption of truthfulness and answer questions about why or how. Their aim is to make the reader understand rather than to persuade him or her to accept a certain point of view. In short, arguments are used for persuasion and explanations for clarification. Like arguments, explanations provide information about causes, contexts, and consequences or processes, phenomena, states of affairs, objects, terminology, and so on. However, in an argument, the writer not only gives information but also presents a case with the “pros” (supporting ideas) and “cons” (opposing ideas) on a debatable issue. Because an argument deals with whether the main claim is true, it demands empirical descriptive evidence, statistics, or definitions for support. When writing an argument, the writer supports his or her claim(s) with sound reasoning and relevant and sufficient evidence.

 

Writing Samples:

  1. Sample #1: Common Core Informative/ Explanatory Essay

In this piece of twelfth-grade informative/explanatory writing, the writer addresses the underlying messages of an ad for McDonald’s. She provides some context about McDonald’s and the ad itself in the introduction so that the reader can clearly follow her thinking even without having seen the ad. The writer then indicates that the main analytical purpose of the essay is to unpack the ad’s imagery and to contrast the ad’s implicit messages with the reality of the McDonald’s food empire. The writer organizes the essay clearly and carefully so that each chunk builds upon the one that precedes it. She describes the ad, analyzes its messages, and assesses the appeal of those messages to today’s busy parents. She uses appropriate transitions to clarify relationships among ideas and concepts. Within each chunk, the writer uses precise language and domain-specific vocabulary to describe and analyze the ad. This makes the writer’s thinking and understanding easy to follow. The tone of the essay is objective and the style formal, both appropriate for an essay in cultural criticism. The conclusion follows from and supports the information presented, and reflects on the significance of the topic.

 

Read the sample informative/ explanatory essay here: Common Core Student Informative/ Explanatory Essay

 

  1. Sample #2: Common Core Explanatory Essay

Interpretation and Student Sample

In this on-demand assignment, students were asked to explain the effects of the Great Depression on people who lived through it. This writer provides context about the deep difficulty of living during the Depression in the introduction. She analyzes the metaphor of Steinbeck’s turtle to help manage the complexity of the topic. In the second paragraph, she offers her main point/focus: the Great Depression created a “curiously strong sense of optimism” in people. The writer organizes complex ideas, concepts, and information clearly to support the main point using textual evidence, doing so in such a way that each section builds on the one that precedes it. While she draws on texts extensively, they are not the organizing principle; rather, the concepts of hope, optimism, and perseverance are. The writer uses appropriate, varied, and strong transitions to connect concepts and create coherence. (For example, “However, the focus of "Digging In" is not to evaluate federal programs, but to evaluate the effectiveness of one's own efforts to help oneself.”) Within each chunk of the essay, the writer uses precise language and domain-specific vocabulary and techniques to name and explain the effects, which she has identified from the texts she has read. The writer analyzes evidence thoughtfully throughout so that the reader grasps the complexity of the topic. The essay has an appropriately formal, academic style and tone. The conclusion follows from and supports the information presented, and in it the writer reflects on the significance of the topic.

 

Read the sample explanatory essay here: Common Core Student Explanatory Essay

 

 

III. Formatting Your Writing (Adapted from Yale College Writing Center)

Academic disciplines have varying expectations for how to list citation information; in some instances, even two journals in the same field will use different styles. All three of these styles require the same basic information, but the order of that information varies, in part because different academic fields emphasize different elements of a source when referring to previous research.

 

Modern Language Association & American Psychological Association:

These two styles are known as “in-text” citation styles, which means that you give some information about the source directly after the quotation, but leave the rest to a list of References (APA) or Works Cited (MLA) at the end of the paper. (1) MLA style, defined by the Modern Language Association, is most common in the humanities. Because humanities research highlights how one piece of writing influences another, MLA style emphasizes the author’s name and the page in the original text you’re using. This information allows scholars to track down easily the exact sentences you’re analyzing. (2) APA style, defined by the American Psychological Association, is most common in the sciences and social sciences. Although the author’s name is an important element in APA citations, this style emphasizes the year the source was published, rather than the page number, which allows a reader to see quickly how the research you’re writing about has evolved over time.

  1. MLA Formatting and Style Guide: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/

  2. APA Formatting and Style Guide: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/1/

 

Chicago Style:

The alternative to in-text citation is to use footnotes, which give source information at the bottom of the page. The footnote style is called Chicago style, defined by the University of Chicago. Chicago style is especially popular in historical research. When developing a historical explanation from multiple primary sources, using footnotes instead of inserting parenthetical information allows the reader to focus on the evidence instead of being distracted by the publication information about that evidence. The footnotes can be consulted if someone wants to track down your source for further research. Chicago style is more flexible than MLA and APA formats, and therefore more complicated to explain. Chicago Formatting and Style Guide: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/717/01/

 

IV. Understanding Writing Prompts (Adapted from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill)

To succeed at responding to a writing prompt, students first need to understand what the prompt is asking them to do. Embedded in a writing prompt are instructions about what the writer needs to do in the essay. It is important for a writer to be able to extract and understand writing instructions. Students should ask themselves: “What am I being asked to write?” In order for students to determine exactly what they should be writing, the following steps should be used for understanding a prompt:

  1. Read the prompt carefully:

    • Though the prompt is probably no more than a few sentences long, assume EACH word is important. Do not simply scan through the words—read the entire prompt. Make sure you understand what the prompt is asking you to do. It is a good idea to read the prompt over several times to make sure you are not missing anything.

  2. Take note of important words:

    • Look for keywords in the prompt that tell you WHAT to write about and HOW to address the topic. Take special note of action verbs (e.g., “analyze,” “compare,” “describe,” etc.). Highlight, circle, underline, or somehow emphasize these words so you will remember they are very important.

  3. Break the prompt down into tasks:

    • It can be helpful to address one task at a time. Breaking down the prompt into its individual parts may help reduce the amount of pressure felt to complete such a big task. By completing each part individually, you may feel less stressed. As a bonus, using this method assures you that you have addressed every part of the prompt. When you are trying to address all parts of the prompt at once, you may accidentally skip one part of the task.  

  4. Restate the prompt for understanding:

    • Restating the prompt in your own words might help you better understand it. Take less familiar vocabulary, and convert it to words you recognize. Reading your own, revised version of the prompt can help you understand the task more clearly and make you feel more capable of writing a response.

Types of Writing Prompts:

  1. Argument Prompts: Keywords that indicate that a writer must compose an argument response include:

  1. Analyze: Break a subject down into its component parts, describe or evaluate each, and often describe the relationship among the parts.

  2. Assess: Offer an opinion of something, generally measuring it against some standard (which must be made explicit).

  3. Compare/Contrast: Show how two or more things are similar or different.

  4. Discuss: Explain the various aspects of a topic or problem, come to a conclusion about it, and support that conclusion.

  5. Evaluate: Estimate the value or effectiveness of something; often requires assertion and defense of an informed opinion.

  6. Generate: Offer a series of ideas, suggestions, solutions, etc. (often new and original) on a topic.

  7. Interpret: Make something explicit, or clarify, often in a specific context or with reference to a specific body of knowledge.

  8. Prove: Show the truth of a statement using logic or experimentation.

  9. Research: Gather information from legitimate, qualified outside sources. Usually implies that information should be analyzed.

  10. Review: Discuss a topic critically, usually offering an evaluation supported by argument.

  11. Support: Provide reasons, logical argument, examples, etc. to demonstrate the truth or validity of a claim.

 

B. Informative/ Explanatory Prompts: Keywords that indicate that a writer must compose an informative/ explanatory response include:

  1. Account for: Explain causes or reasons for a phenomenon.

  2. Define: Give the meaning of a term. May involve identifying the class or category to which it belongs and explaining how it differs from others in the same category. May require presentation of multiple views.

  3. Describe: Offer a detailed account of the characteristics of something.

  4. Explain: Account for character, causes, results, implications, etc. by providing relevant details.

  5. Illustrate: Explain or clarify something with the use of examples and/or figures.

  6. Outline: Provide main features or big picture, excluding minor details.

  7. Relate: Show the nature of a connection between two or more things; explain the nature of their interactions or effects on one another.

  8. Summarize: Provide a concise account of a topic, process, or argument, omitting unnecessary detail.

  9. Trace: Show how something has changed or developed, usually chronologically.

 

V. The Conventions of Writing: Mechanics, Usage, and Sentence Formation (Adapted from The Five Features of Effective Writing; Grammarly Handbook; and The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center)

Conventions are the surface features of writing — mechanics, usage, and sentence formation. Conventions are a courtesy to the reader, making writing easier to read by putting it in a form that the reader expects and is comfortable with.

 

Mechanics

Mechanics are the conventions of print that do not exist in oral language, including spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and paragraphs. Because they do not exist in oral language, students have to consciously learn how mechanics function in written language. For example, while speakers do not have to be conscious of the spellings of words, writers not only have to use standard spelling for each word but may even have to use different spellings for words that sound the same but have different meanings. The same holds true for punctuation: speakers do not have to think consciously about intonation and pauses, but writers have to decide where to use a period instead of a comma and how to indicate that they are quoting someone’s exact words.

Mechanics Resources:

 

Punctuation Resources:

 

 

Usage

Usage refers to conventions of both written and spoken language that include word order, verb tense, and subject-verb agreement. Usage may be easier than mechanics to teach because children enter school with a basic knowledge of how to use language to communicate. As children are learning to use oral language, they experiment with usage and learn by practice what is expected and appropriate.

 

However, the oral language that many children use at home is often very different from formal “school” language. In addition, children who speak a language other than English at home may use different grammatical rules, word order, and verb conjugations. Although it may be easier to teach “correct” usage when a child’s oral language at home is already very similar to school language, children from all oral language backgrounds benefit from learning about how language is used in different situations.

Grammar Resources:

 

Sentence Formation

Sentence formation refers to the structure of sentences, the way that phrases and clauses are used to form simple and complex sentences. In oral language, words and sentences cannot be changed once they have been spoken. But the physical nature of writing allows writers to craft their sentences, combining and rearranging related ideas into a single, more compact sentence. As students become more adept at expressing their ideas in written language, their sentences become longer and more complex.

Sentence Style and Clarity Resources:

 

VI. University Writing Resources

 

Dartmouth Institute for Writing and Rhetoric:

 

Purdue University Online Writing Lab:

  • The Online Writing Lab (OWL) at Purdue University houses writing resources and instructional material, and are provided as a free service of the Writing Lab at Purdue. Students, members of the community, and users worldwide will find information to assist with many writing projects.

  • https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/

 

The University of Chicago Writing Program:

 

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center:

  • The UNC Chapel Hill Writing Center online resources are available to everyone; they offer helpful advice for writers and instructors on a variety of topics.

  • http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/